Ancient temples of Srivilliputhur, Tamil Nadu - the southern homeland and history of Balija Naidus during 1350 to 1900

Srivilliputhur is a municipal town in Tamil Nadu, very near Kanya Kumari, to give one an idea of what would be a southern homeland of the Balija Naidus. They came with the Telugu empires from the regions south of Vijayawada, from Kanigiri, Udayagiri, Guntur, Venkatagiri and Nayudupeta, as Nayakas, the warrior chieftains of the armies, and as Baligas or Balijas, the merchants, and as custodians of small temples that were set up to provide solace to the various clans who established themselves in the southern stronghold.

Today, the town is in the Virudhunagar district, and has a compact population of nearly a hundred thousand people.

The town of Srivilliputhur has always been a mofussil settlement, even about a thousand years ago and more. The Hindu School is a famous establishment and has been around for more than 200 years ago. My grandfather, Shyamala Ranga Bhashyam spoke about being a student in this school during 1905 to 1910 or thereabouts, and did say that his father, Neela Meghala Shyamala Naidu had also perhaps been a student of this very school.

Shri Andal temple at Srivilliputhur

[from - http://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/history-and-culture/home-of-the-saint-poetess/article5003204.ece - copyright with the original owner]

The temple of Andal and the great Thiruppavai, are known from the town of Srivilliputhur. The temple is a landmark of the settlement, and has always been, and I assume that the mofussil nature of the settlement must have come about the temple. The 11-tiers of the temple's main tower, 192 feet high, is dedicated to Vatapatrasayee, the Lord of Srivilliputhur. Built by Periya Alwar, on the money that he had won in gold from the debates held at the Court of Vallabhadeva, the Pandya King. His daughter was Andal, who swore her devotion to the Lord and was married to HIM. Thus, Periya Alwar, the man who constructed the temple, is known as the father-in-law of the Lord.

Shri Andal temple at Srivilliputhur

[from - http://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/history-and-culture/home-of-the-saint-poetess/article5003204.ece - copyright with the original owner]

The nearby towns of Madurai, Sattur, Thirunelveli, Shenkottai, Tenkasi and Sivakasi became urban settlements, much later, with the exception of Madurai, which also developed as a temple settlement, likewise with Srivilliputhur. Malli, the ancient Queen of southern Tamil Nadu ruled the lands of this region. Her two sons, Villi and Kandan, had gone hunting in the nearby forests. Kandan was killed by a tiger. Realising that his brother was missing during the hunt, Villi went out in search of him. After long hours, he decided to rest at a spot and fell asleep. A divine voice informed him of the fate of his brother, and he decided to establish a settlement at that very location. Thus, the city, named after Villi, being Srivilliputhur.

Andal, the human consort of the Lord is recognised as the only woman Alvar, from among the twelve Alvar saints of Vaishnavite theology. To this day, her works, Thirupavai and the Nachiar Thirumozhi are recited by the devotees at the temple. Her father, Periya Alvar, is also one of the Alvar saints.

With the incoming Balija Naidu chieftains, warlords and army generals, and after their settling in, some became local Kings. While the lines of geneology are not discussed in detail, the township began to gain in fame during the times of Thirumalai Nayakar (1623-1659) and Rani Mangammal (1689-1706). After the marauding attacks of Nerkattumseval, Puli Thevar and Periyaswami Thevar and Mohammed Yousoof Khan, the settlement came under the protection of the King of Travancore until 1850 before passing on to British hands.

Thirumalai Nayakar, the Balija King of Madurai

[from - http://indica.co.in/thirumalai-nayakar-mahal -

copyright with the original owner]

The Vatapatrasayee Andal temple is the most important one in this region, and is one of the 108 Vaishnava Divya Desams. Lord Vishnu is also known as Rangamannar and is depicted here as resting on a banyan tree leaf, and therefore known as Vatapatrasayee = Vata - Banyan, Patra - Leaf, Sayee - Lord.

The other important temple is the Madavar Vilagam Vaidyanathar Temple, with a six feet high image of Nataraja, the dance-form of Shiva.

Nearby, in Thiruvannamalai, also known as Thenthirupathi, is the temple dedicated to Vishnu and nestles within the Western Ghats.

At Kattalagar, is the Vishnu temple, to the west of Srivilliputhur, near the Mantunga hills.

There are two ancient Shiva temples nearby, known as Sundara Mahalingam and Sandhana Mahalingam at Sathuragiri Hills, where several Shaivite sages were known to have resided.

Thirumalai Nayak was one of the most foremost of the thirteen Madurai Nayak rulers in the 17th century. He is known to have caused the construction of the most of the temples in the region, including the ones at Madurai. His kingdom stretched from Coimbatore, Tirunelveli, Madurai, Aragalur and some of the Travancore kingdoms, and the old Pandya territories. The Madurai Nayaks were Bana or Balija Naidus, and ruled the southern regions of Tamil Nadu from 1529 AD to 1736 AD, with Madurai as the capital. There were 13 rulers, with 2 being women, and 2 having ruled jointly. The most noteworthy among them were Tirumalai Nayak and the queen Rani Mangammal.

Before the rule of the Balija Naidus in southern Tamil Nadu, the region was ruled by the Afghans who came down from Delhi, by taking advantage of the dissension within the Tamil Pandya kings. Malik Kafur was sent by Emperor Ala-ud-din Khilji from Delhi in 1310 AD. He destroyed many towns while marching on to Southern India and ransacked Madurai entirely. The Meenakshi Temple at Madurai, then with 14 towers, was pulled down, the streets and buildings were destroyed, with only the inner temples of Sundareshwara and Meenakshi left behind. The Pandya Kings were weak, and Malik Kafur desired to return to Delhi, which he did. Soon thereafter, the neighbouring Chera Kings invaded Madurai, defeated the Pandya rulers, and established a new rule in 1313.

Malik Kafur however sent back a Afghan Governor, and thereafter, Delhi's rule was established for nearly five decades. While Mohammad-bin-Tughlaq ruled Delhi, during 1333 AD, the local feudatory, Jalal-ud-Din Ahsan Khan declared himself independent and ruled Madurai. He was killed by his own officers in 1339, and Alauddin-Udauji-Shah was King of Madurai during 1339 AD to 1340 AD. He was also killed by his own officers. Qutbuddin Firoz ruled for 40 days before being killed in 1340 AD. Giyazuddin Muhammad Damghan, an Afghan chieftain became King of the Madurai region for four years. He was followed by Naziruddin Mahmud Damghan, a fellow Afghan, 1344 AD to 1356 AD, Adil Shah 1356 AD to 1359 AD, Faqruddin Mubarak 1359 AD to 1368 AD and Alauddin Sikandar 1368 AD to 1377 AD.

Sikandar had to face a fierce battle with Bukka from Vijayanagara, and lost the Kingdom in 1377, leading to the rule of the Vijayanagara empire and the coming of the Balija Naidus. The city of Hampi was the capital of the Vijayanagara empire and the regions of Madurai and Srivilliputhur were ruled by the Balija Nayakas for the next 200 years and defended itself against Afghan and Moghul invasions. Kampana Udayar, a prince of the Vijayanagara empire, and representing Bukkaraya, came to Madurai in 1372, established a feudatory kingdom at Madurai and reopened the Siva and Vishnu temples in the city. Later, with the consolidation and control of Krishnadevaraya, 1509 AD to 1529 AD, the feudal kings and governors recognised themselves as "Nayaka".

Kampana Udayar was followed by his son Embana Udayar, and was followed by his brother-in-law, Porakasa Udayar. This dynastic rule was broken by Lakkana Nayaka, in 1404 AD, who ruled Madurai jointly with Mathana Nayaka until 1461 AD.

However, during earlier years, prior to the Pandya Kings, the region was ruled by Bana chieftains, who were established by Kulottunga Chola III during the 1200s. They were smart, and established themselves as feudatory kings of both the Cholas and the Pandyas.

The earliest known Nayaka chieftains, as Balija Nayakas, however, are from 1477 AD. The earliest was -

Thirumalai-runjolai Mahabalivana, ruler of Madurai, 1477 AD
Virapratapa Sundara-ttoludaiyan Mahabali Vanadhiraya, ruler of Conjivaram (Kanchivaram), 1469 AD

Later, Kings included - Narasa Nayaka, Tenna Nayaka, Narasa Pillai, Kuru Timmappa Nayaka, Kattiyama Kamayya Nayaka, Chinappa Nayaka, Ayyakarai Veyyappa Nayaka and Viswanatha Nayaka Ayyar.

Rani Mangammal

[from - http://www.mabeats.com/2008/02/rani-mangammalthe-queen.html

- copyright with the original owner]

Rani Mangammal, was one of the foremost of the Madurai Nayak dynasty, and perhaps one of the only few Baljia Naidu queens in most dynasties in peninsular India. Daughter of Lingama Nayakar, a general of Chokkanatha Nayakar, she married the King, but could not become the queen, because he wanted to take another spouse who was the daughter of Vijayaraghava Nayakar, the princess of Thanjavur. Thus, one can see that there were several important houses of Balija Naidus through the central to the southern regions of current Tamil Nadu. Chokkanatha Nayakar died in 1682, without completing the marriage, and Rani Mangammal took over as the Regent Queen to take care of the throne for her son Rangakrishna Muthu Veerappa Nayakar. He died in 1689, and his wife committed suicide after giving birth to her son. Rani Mangammal placed him on the throne of Madurai when he was 3 months old, and ruled as Regent Queen on behalf of her grandson.

Gajula Balija Naidus during 1890 to 1950 - in the Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh regions

The Gajula Balija Naidus were usually referred to or preferred to be known as Gavara, Kavara, Chetti, Setti, or Balijas during the period 1890 to 1950. Nowadays, most of these names have stabilised with their modifications while some families have retained their clan names and seemingly discarded the 'Balija' or 'Naidu' part, for e.g. Varada, Marri, Meka, Mudra or Chetty.

The Madras Presidency Map of British India

[from - http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/2/26/Pope1880MadrasPres2.jpg]

Andhra Pradesh was formed in 1956. And now, we are witness to the birth of Telengana and Seemandhra. At this moment, it does not feel like several decades have gone by. Many elders would remember the erstwhile pre-Andhra Pradesh days also. The key aspect to the development and progress of our families in the earlier Century was the construction of the Sir Arthur Cotton Barrage at Dowleshwaram, to the east of Rajahmundry. This was sometime around 1848-1852. The agriculture boomed, trade developed and the region became prosperous. Our families began to move out to expand their trade and undertook to stabilise themselves in different parts of this region and to undertake different types of work. This included trade in vegetables and flowers, transport of food products, trade in clothes, jewelry, artisanship and finished goods.

The British Indian Empire Map of the Imperial Gazetteer in 1910

with the Madras Presidency and the Hyderabad State

[from - http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/36/ British_Indian_Empire_1909_Imperial_Gazetteer_of_India.jpg]

The initial movement was from Guntur, Vijayawada and south to Nellore. During this period, there was another movement, that was from Srivilliputtur, Madurai, Kanya Kumari and Nagarcoil regions, northwards to Srirangam, Thanjavur and to Madras. This led to the intermingling of families, clans and groups. New communities and larger families emerged. With the ongoing political turmoil, several other groups began to stabilise their communities, but the Gajula Balijas did not seem to do so well in taking care of themselves with an united front.

Some did well, and proved themselves in corrupt practices too, in connection with land revenue matters. There is one paper that mentions that one such Tahsildar, a Mr. Krishna Rao, Hujoor Tahsildar of Ananthapuram, appointed 108 of his family to various jobs. This led to many complaints, of course, and he was transferred. He took it upon himself to consider the transfer as another opportunity, and he appointed 117 from his kith and kin, of which 80 were from within his own family. This is not the united front that I am referring to, of course.

There were well-to-do families too. The Raja of Venkatagiri went into mining of mica. The Zamindars of Kalahasti lived a very opulent lifestyle. Similar families, with likewise tendencies, lived the best of their lives during the late 1800s, during 1870 to 1890, and went bankrupt. They were usually spoken of, when referring to the grand old days of Gajula Balija Naidus of those times. Every family, clan or community usually referred to themselves as having marriage relationships with these notoriously known families.

The first of the attempts at unifying the communities came from Gajula Lakshmi Narasu Chetty who founded the Madras Native Association in 1852. Later, Shri G. Rangaiah Naidu established the Mahajanasabha on 16 May 1894. The epidemic of 1891 in Madras killed many and discouraged several others from moving to the city. Several leading Naidus attended the first Indian National Congress Session in 1885. They included P. Rangaiah Naidu, N. Venkata Subbarayudu, and S. N. Narasimhulu Naidu. The second Indian National Congress Session held in 1886 was attended by prominent Naidus, including A. P. Parthasarathi Naidu and P. Rangaiah Naidu.

The Justice Party in the 1920s in Madras Presidency

Shri Thyagaraya Chetty is at the Centre (with the girl seated near him). 

Also present is the Raja of Venkatagiri.

[from - http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6e/Justice_Party_1920s.jpg]

Political growth, understanding and evolution among Naidu communities continued during 1890 to 1920, with the formation of several local parties, until 1923-1924, when the Chief Minister of Madras, Panagal Raja, nominated some Naidus to the Zilla Board and Municipal Chairman's posts. They included Yathirajulu Naidu to the Zilla Board and Municipal Chairmanship of Guntur and Muniswami Naidu in Chittoor. In 1928, K. V. Reddy Naidu, a powerful political leader in Madras State, with sway from Vijayawada to Srirangam, founded the South Indian Liberal Federation. When Panagal Raja died, there were differences. B. Muniswamy Naidu fought against Bobbili Raja and came closer to N. G. Ranga (later, the veteran parliamentarian of independent India). Eventually, Muniswamy Naidu became the Chief Minister of Madras in 1930. 

Gajula Balija Naidu - the roots...

Gajula Balija Naidu - the caste of my families - traces its roots to a story about Parvati's penance to look beautiful for Shiva. In this attempt, she invoked the powers of a sacred fire, from which a person emerged. This person is supposed to be the ancestor of all gajula balijas. He brought forth combs, bangles, perfumes, sandals, powder, beads and coloured palm-leaf rolls for the ears. [Ref. - Government of Madras Staff P. 105 Gazetteer of the Nellore District.]

A similar story of the same times traces the origins to Himavan (father of Parvati) when he offered a sacrifice of a bull to Brahma, through the powers of a sacred fire, from which the person emerged.

Balijas, also often referred to alongside Kapus, migrated from the north, and are supposed to be descendants of the indo-aryan Kaampu tribe that migrated southwards from Kampilya and Mithila. The reference to Kapus, are for those who were engaged in trade, were known as Balijas. The Balijas who joined the armed forces and protected the trade caravans were known as Balija Nayakulu or Balija Naidus. Some historians believe that the Balijas / Kapus /Kaampu are also with roots in the Kossar tribe that led to the Satavahana dynasty and several other ancient dynasties. Several variants of the group, during their movement from Kampilya and Mithila towards south India have ended up in Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Chhatisgarh and Orissa.

The excerpt from the Gazetteer of the Nellore District - about Balijas

Several dynasties established by the Balija - Kapu communities include - Telugu Chodas, Ananda Gotrikas, Kona Kings, Madurai Nayaks, Thanjavur Nayaks, Vijayanagar - Araveeti Dynasty, Koppula Chiefs, Poligars of Anantapur, Musunuri Nayaks and the Korukonda Nayaks.

The word "Naidu" is acceptably related etymologically in Kerala ("Nair"), Maharashtra ("Naik"), Tamil Nadu ("Naicker" or "Naickan") and Orissa ("Nayaks" or "Pattanayak").

Excerpts from - Castes and Tribes of Southern India - Volume 1

by Edgar Thurston. (Copyright no longer applicable)

Photograph of a traditional Gajula Balija with his trade

From - Castes and Tribes of Southern India - Volume 1

by Edgar Thurstaon (Copyright no longer applicable)

There is a twist to the story. There is another caste - Kacher - located in Rajasthan, of whom there are both Hindus and Muslims, who also claim their roots to the same story. Here is an excerpt -

from a Handbook of Muslim Caste Names

Encyclopaedia of the World Muslims: Tribes, Castes and Communities, Volume 1

 edited by Nagendra Kr Singh, Abdul Mabud Khan

the Balijas - From the Castes and Tribes of Southern India

From - Title: Castes and Tribes of Southern India Vol. 1 of  7 Author: Edgar Thurston

Available at - http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42991/42991-h/42991-h.htm#pl1-139

Copyright with the original owners, if existing. 

Balija.—The Balijas are described by Mr. Francis23 as being “the chief Telugu trading caste, scattered throughout all parts of the Presidency. It is said to have two main sub-divisions, Dēsa (or Kōta, a fort) and Pēta (street). The first of these includes those, whose ancestors are supposed to have been the Balija (Nāyak) kings of Madura, Tanjore and Vijayanagar, or provincial governors in those kingdoms; and to the second belong those, like the Gāzulu (bangle sellers) and Perike (salt-sellers), who live by trade. In the Tamil districts Balijas are known as Vadugans (Telugu people) and Kavarais. The descendants of the Nāyak or Balija Kings of Madura and Tanjore claim to be Kshatriyas and of the Kāsyapa (a rishi) gōtra, while the Vijayanagar Rāis say they are lineal descendants of the sage Bhāradwāja. Others trace their ancestry to the Kauravas of the Mahābhārata. This Kshatriya descent is, however, not admitted by other castes, who say that Balijas are an offshoot of the Kammas or Kāpus, or that they are a mixed community recruited from these and other Telugu castes. The members of the caste none of them now wear the sacred thread, or follow the Vēdic ritual. The name Kartākkal (governors) was returned by those who claim to be descendants of the Nāyak Kings of Madura and Tanjore.”

In a letter submitted, from Coimbatore, to Mr. Francis in connection with the census, 1901, it was [135]stated that “the Balija people are Kshatriyas of the Lunar Race, as can be proved by a reference to the Bahgavatham, Vishnupurānam, and Brahmmandapurānam, etc.... In this connection, it will be interesting to note that one Sevappa Naidu married Murthiammal, sister-in-law to Achuta Dēva Rayulu of Narapathi Samasthanam of Vijayanagar, and as a marriage portion or dowry received the territory of Tanjore, over which he ruled as king for a long period. It was at this time that the celebrated Tirumalay Naidu of Madura took as wife one of the daughters of Sevappa Naidu’s family. Tirumalay’s grandson, one Chockalinga Naidu, married Mangammal, daughter of Vijiaragavulu Naidu, a grandson of the said Tanjore Sevappa Naidu. It will thus be seen that the Naidu rulers of Tanjore, Trichinopoly, and Madura, were all relations of Narapathi Samasthanam of Vijianagar. That these Narapathies of Vijianagaram were Kshatriyas of the Lunar Race can be clearly seen by a reference to Manucharithra, Pārijāthāpaharanam, Prouda Prabanda Kavi Charitra, etc., and that they were direct descendants of the great Andra Kings can be proved with equal satisfaction by referring to Colonel Mackenzie’s MSS., in the introduction of A. D. Campbell’s Telugu Grammar, and James Prinsep’s Useful Tables of Andra Kings will show that the Andras were immediate descendants of the well-known Yayathi Rāja of the Lunar Race.”

“The Balijas,” Mr. H. A. Stuart writes,24 “are the trading caste of the Telugu country, but they are now found in every part of the Presidency. Concerning the origin of this caste several traditions exist, but the most probable is that which represents them as a recent [136]offshoot of the Kāpu or Reddi caste. The caste is rather a mixed one, for they will admit, without much scruple, persons who have been expelled from their proper caste, or who are the result of irregular unions. The bulk of the Balijas are now engaged in cultivation, and this accounts for so many having returned Kāpu as their main caste, for Kāpu is also a common Telugu word used for a ryot (farmer). It is not improbable that there was once a closer connection than now between the Kāpus and the Balijas, and the claim of the Balijas to belong to the Kāpu caste may have a foundation in fact. In their customs there is very little difference between the Kāpus and Balijas. Their girls are married both before and after puberty. The re-marriage of widows is forbidden. They eat flesh, and alcohol is said to be freely indulged in [There is a proverb ‘If a man be born a Balija, he must crack the arrack bottle’]. Like the Bōgams and Sānis, the Balija females usually wear a petticoat instead of the long robe of ordinary Hindus. The general name of the caste is Naidu.” “The Balija Naidu,” it has been said,25 “is to be met with in almost every walk of life—railway station-masters, head coolies, bakers, butlers, municipal inspectors, tappal (post) runners, hawkers, and hotel-keepers. The title Chetti is by some used in preference to Naidu.” It is noted in the Bellary Manual that the Balijas “have by common consent obtained a high place in the social system of South India. Some are land-owners, residing on and working their own property with the help of members of inferior castes; but the majority live by trade.” At Tirupati, a number of Balija families are engaged in the red sanders wood (Pterocarpus santalinus), carving [137]industry. Figures of swāmis (deities), mythological figures, elephants, and miniature temple cars with flying cherubs and winged horses, are most abundantly carved: but domestic utensils in the shape of chembus, kinnis, cups, plates, etc., are turned on the lathe. Large vessels are sometimes made of the wood of vēpi or āchamaram (Hardwickia binata), which resembles red sanders wood, but is more liable to crack. The carved figures are sold to pilgrims and others who visit Tirupati, and are also taken to Conjeeveram, Madura, and other places, at times when important temple festivals are celebrated. Vessels made of red sanders wood carry no pollution, and can be used by women during the menstrual period, and taken back to the house without any purification ceremony. For the same reason, Sanyāsis (ascetics) use such vessels for doing pūja.

The name Balija is said to be derived from the Sanskrit bali (a sacrifice) and ja (born), signifying that the Balijas owe their origin to the performance of a yāgam. The legend is current that on one occasion Siva wanted his consort Parvati to appear before him in all her glory. But, when she stood before him, fully decorated, he laughed, and said that she was not as charming as she might be. On this, she prayed that Siva would help her to become so. From his braid of hair Siva created a being who descended on the earth, bearing a number of bangles and turmeric paste, with which Parvati adorned herself. Siva, being greatly pleased with her appearance, told her to look at herself in a looking-glass. The being, who brought the bangles, is believed to have been the ancestor of the Gāzula Balijas. According to another version of the legend, Parvati was not satisfied with her appearance when she saw herself in the looking-glass, and asked her [138]father to tell her how she was to make herself more attractive. He accordingly prayed to Brahma, who ordered him to perform a severe penance (thapas). From the sacrificial fire, kindled in connection therewith, arose a being leading a donkey laden with heaps of bangles, turmeric, palm leaf rolls for the ears, black beads, sandal powder, a comb, perfumes, etc. From this Maha Purusha who thus sprang from a sacrifice (bali), the Balijas derived their origin and name. To him, in token of respect, were given flags, torches, and certain musical instruments.

The Dēsāyis, or leaders of the right-hand faction, are said to be Balijas by caste. In former days they had very great influences, and all castes belonging to the right-hand faction would obey the Dēsāyi Chetti. Even at the present day, the Oddēs and others refer their disputes to the Dēsāyi, and not to their own caste headman. In former times there were three principal Dēsāyis, who had their head-quarters at Conjeeveram, Cuddalore, and Walajapet. The head Dēsāyi possesses a biruthu (insigne of office) in the form of a large brass ladle with a bell attached to it. On the occasion of Balija marriages and funerals, this is sent through the Chalavathi (a pariah), who is the servant of the Dēsāyi, and has the right of allu eduththal (taking a handful) when he goes to the bazaar, where he receives meat from the butcher, vegetables, etc., as his perquisite. The Dēsāyi’s ladle is kept in the custody of the Chalavathi (See Dēsāyi).

A Gazula Balija with bangles

The Balijas, Mr. Stuart writes,26 “employ Brāhmans and Sātānis as their priests. The chief object of their worship is Gauri, their caste deity. It is said that the [139]Mālas are the hereditary custodians of the idol of Gauri and her jewels, which the Balijas get from them whenever they want to worship her. The following story is told to account for this. The Kāpus and Balijas, molested by the Muhammadan invaders on the north of the northern Pennār, migrated to the south when the Pennār was in full flood. Being unable to cross the river, they invoked their deity to make a passage for them, for which it demanded the sacrifice of a first-born child. While they stood at a loss what to do, the Mālas who followed them boldly offered one of their children to the goddess. Immediately the river divided before them, and the Kāpus and the Balijas crossed it, and were saved from the tyranny of the Muhammadans. Ever since that time, the Mālas have been respected by the Kāpus and Balijas, and the latter even deposited the images of Gauri, the bull and Ganēsa, which they worshipped, in the house of a Māla. I am credibly informed that the practice of leaving these images in the custody of Mālas is even now observed in some parts of the Cuddapah district and elsewhere.”

Of the numerous sub-divisions of the Balijas, the following may be noticed:—

Gāzula, glass bangles. Valaiyal or vala (bangle) Chetti is the Tamil equivalent. By some the sight of a Gāzula Balija with his pile of bangles on his back is considered a good omen. In recent years, a scare has arisen in connection with an insect, which is said to take up its abode in imported German glass bangles, which compete with the indigenous industry of the Gāzulas. The insect is believed to lie low in the bangle till it is purchased, when it comes out and nips the wearer, after warning her to get her affairs in order before succumbing. A specimen of a broken bangle, from which the insect is stated to have burst forth and stung a girl in the wrist, was sent to me. But the insect was not forthcoming.

Gandavallu, or Gundapodi vāndlu. Go about the villages, hawking turmeric, kunkumam (colour powder), kamela (Mallotus philippinensis) dye powder, beads, combs, cosmetics and other articles. Supposed to have been originally Kōmatis.

Kavarai, Tamil synonym for Balija.

Linga.

Panchama.

Telugu or Telaga. A synonym for Balija in the Northern Circars.

Rājamāhendram or Mūsu Kamma. The former denotes the town of Rajahmundry, and the latter a special ear-ornament worn by women.

Tōta, garden.

Ralla, precious stones.

Pagadala, coral.

Pūsa, beads.

Rācha, royal.

Vyāsa. A sage (rishi) or hunter, whom the hunting classes claim as their ancestor.

Other sub-divisions, classified as Balijas at the census, 1901, were:—

Jakkulas, among whom it was, at Tenali in the Kistna district, formerly customary for each family to give up one girl for prostitution. Under the influence of social reform, a written agreement was a few years ago entered into to give up the practice.

Ādapāpa. Female attendants on the ladies of the families of Zamindars, who, as they are not allowed to marry, lead a life of prostitution. Their sons call themselves Balijas. In some places, e.g., the Kistna and Godāvari districts, this class is known as Khasa or Khasavandlu.
Santa Kavarai. Returned as Balijas in the Chingleput district.
Ravut. Returned in the Salem district. Said to have been formerly soldiers under the Poligars.

Like other Telugu castes, the Balijas have exogamous septs (intipēru) and gōtras. Of the former, the following are examples:—

Tupākala, musket. Samudram, ocean. Pappu, split pulse. Gantla, bell. Puli, tiger. Balli, lizard. Āvula, cow. Gandham, sandal paste or powder. Jilakara, cummin seeds.

Miriyāla, pepper. Mutyāla, pearls. Nārikēlla, cocoanut. Nemili, peacock. Pagadāla, coral. Pattindla, silk house. Ratnāla, precious stones. Ungarāla, rings. Yenumala, buffalo.

There is a saying that a Balija who has no gōtra must take the name of the Pasuleti, or Pasupuleti gōtra. In like manner, a Brāhman orphan, whose gōtra cannot be traced, is made to adopt the Vathsa gōtra.

A balija wedding

Among the Mūsu Kammas, the consent of both the maternal uncle and elder sister’s husband must be obtained before a girl is given in marriage. At the betrothal ceremony, the future bridegroom’s relations proceed to the house of the girl, carrying the following articles on an odd number of trays beneath a cloth canopy (ulladam): mustard, fenugreek (Trigonella Fœnumgræcum), cummin seeds, curds, jaggery, dhāl (Cajanus indicus), balls of condiments, tamarinds, pepper, twenty-one cakes, eleven cocoanuts, salt, plantains, flowers, a new cloth, black beads, a palm-leaf roll for the ear lobe, turmeric, a comb, and kunkumam (colour powder). A few rupees, called kongu mudi, to be given to the future mother-in-law, are also placed on the tray. The contracting parties exchange betel and a cocoanut, of which the latter is taken away by a member of the bridegroom’s party, tied up in his body-cloth. The girl is seated on a plank, goes through the ceremony (nalagu) of being anointed with oil and paste, and is presented with a new cloth. Wearing this, she sits on the plank, and betel, flowers, jewels, etc., are placed in [142]her lap. A near female relation then ties a string of black beads round her neck. Among the Mūsu Kammas, the milk-post, consisting of a green bamboo, with sometimes a branch of Odina Wodier, must be set up two days before the commencement of the marriage ceremonies. It is worshipped, and to it are tied an iron ring, and a string of cotton and wool twisted together (kankanam). A small framework, called dhornam, made of two sticks, across which cotton threads or pieces of cloth are stretched, is brought by a washerwoman, and given to the maternal uncle of the bridegroom, who ties it to the marriage booth. The marriage pots are brought from a potter’s house beneath a cloth canopy (ulladam), and given to married couples, closely related to the bridegroom, who fetch water, and place the pots on the dais. Some married women pour rice on a clean white cloth spread on the floor, and rub off the bran with their hands, while they sing songs. The cloth to be worn by the bridegroom is dipped in turmeric water by these women and dried. 

The Balijas are very particular about the worship of their female ancestors (pērantālu) and no auspicious ceremony can be commenced until pērantālu pūja has been performed. Among the Mūsu Kammas, five women, who are closely related to the bridal couple, take only one meal a day, and try to keep free from pollution of all sorts. They go through the nalagu ceremony, and are presented with new cloths. Among other sections, the wall is simply painted with turmeric dots to represent the ancestors. The ancestor worship concluded, the finger and toe-nails of the bridegroom are cut, and a Mūsu Kamma bridegroom is conducted to a temple of Vignēswara (Ganēsa), if there is one near at hand. By other sections it is considered sufficient, if Vignēswara worship is performed at the [143]marriage booth. The Mūsu Kamma bridegroom is dressed up at the temple, and a bashingam (chaplet) tied on his forehead. An old-fashioned turban (pāghai) is placed on his head, and a dagger (jimthadu) stuck into his waist-cloth. It is said that, in olden times, the Balijas used to worship the dagger, and sacrifice sheep or goats at marriages. The bridegroom is next brought to the house where the wedding is being celebrated, and his brother-in-law washes his feet, and, after throwing flowers and rice over them, puts toe-rings and shoes thereon. 

The Brāhman purōhit lights the sacred fire (hōmam), and pours ghī (clarified butter) therein, while he utters some verses, Vēdic or other. He then ties the kankanam (thread) on the bridegroom’s wrist. The parents of the bride next proceed with the dhārādhattam (gift of the girl) by pouring water and grains of rice into the hands of the bridegroom. Vignēswara is then worshipped, and the bottu (marriage badge) is blessed by those assembled, and handed to the bridegroom. He, placing his right foot on that of the bride, who is separated from him by a screen, ties it round her neck. The couple then exchange seats, and rice is thrown in front of them. They next go thrice round the dais and milk-post, and, at the end of the first and second rounds, the foot of the bride is placed on a grinding stone. After the third round they gaze at the pole-star (Arundati). Into one of the marriage pots are put a pap-bowl, ring, and bracelet, which are picked out by the couple. If the pap-bowl is first got hold of by the bridegroom, the first-born child will be a boy; if the ring, it will be a girl. This rite concluded, the bridegroom makes a mark on the bride’s forehead with collyrium. On the second day, the bridegroom makes a pretence of being angry, and stays in a garden or house near that [144]in which the marriage ceremonies are conducted. The bride, and some of her relations, go to him in procession, and, treating him with great respect, bring him back. The sacred fire is lighted, and the bride enters the room in which the marriage pots (aravēni) are kept. 

The bridegroom is stopped at the entrance thereto by a number of married women, and has to call his wife by her name, and pay a small sum of money for the ārathi (coloured water), which is waved by the women, to ward off the evil eye. In some places, the sister of the bridegroom extracts a promise that his coral (daughter) shall be given in marriage to her pearl (son). He is then permitted to enter the room. On the third day, after hōmam has been performed by the Brāhman priest, the newly married couple go through a burlesque imitation of domestic life, after they have worshipped the posts of the booth, and perform a mimic ploughing ceremony, the bridegroom stirring up some earth in a basket with a stick or miniature plough. This, in some places, his sister tries to prevent him from doing by covering the basket with a cloth, and he has to say “I will give my coral to your pearl.” His brother-in-law tries to squeeze his fingers between a pair of sticks called kitti, which was, in former times, a very popular form of torture as a means of extracting confession. The bride gives her husband some conji (rice-gruel) to refresh him after his pretended labour.

At a marriage among the Perikes (q.v.), a gunny-bag is said to be worshipped before the bottu is tied. A quantity of rice is measured on the first day of the ceremonies and tied up in a cloth. On the third day, the cloth is opened, and it is considered an auspicious sign if the quantity of rice exceeds that which was originally put into it. Among the Rājamāhendram [145]Balijas, just before the nalagu ceremony, the knees, shoulders, and cheeks of the bride and bridegroom are touched with a pestle, while the names of their septs are called out. On the third day, the same process is repeated, but in the reverse order. 

A Gāzula Balija bride must, when the bottu is tied, be dressed in a white cloth with red stripes, called sanna pappuli. With other sections, a white cloth dyed with turmeric is de rigeur.

Balija, it may be noted, is, in the North Arcot Manual, returned as a division of Dāsaris and Īdigas. The better classes of Mēdaras (cane-splitters and mat-makers) are also taking to calling themselves Balijas, and assume the title Chetti. Oddēs and Upparas sometimes style themselves Oddē Balija and Uppara Balija. They belong to the right-hand section, which is headed by the Dēsayi, who is a Balija, and so describe themselves as belonging to the Setti or Chetti samayam (section). Some members of the Mila and Vāda fishing castes have adopted Ōda or Vāda (boat) Balija as their caste name.